The Inheritance and Transformation ofConfucianism as a School of Philosophy
Abstract
Confucius was awise man in many ways. He was a great teacher and thinker. Chinese culturetraditionally refers him as "The Saint" and the Moral Model. However,he is not a systematic philosopher.
As he did notprovide any convincing reasoning, his concepts and theories were explained byfollowers of his that did not agree with each other. It resulted in Confucianismbecoming several philosophy schools that all called themselves Confucianism.Most of them do not really believe in the same theory as Confucius himself. Evidenceof this was shown even in the early days of the Confucianism school. The threepreventatives of the school: Confucius, Mencius, and Hsun Tsu all had differentphilosophical views. However, for the philosophers who had clear and logicalreasoning, they had believers and followers of their original thoughts in everyera like Plato and Aristotle. For Confucius, there were barely people who fullyunderstood his original thoughts in the other time periods of Chinese history.Those who did, obviously was not convinced for they all changed, in a subtleway, the core context.
This paper is areview on the inheritance and Transformation of Confucianism as a school ofPhilosophy by analyzing Confucius' thoughts and comparing it to some laterthinkers from the school.
I. Abrief history of Confucianism
The school ofConfucianism was started by Confucius. He had a system of philosophy,especially ethics; however, for some reasons he did not illustrate them inlogical reasoning. All of the access to his thoughts were through the booksthat he edited and the notes taken by his students.
The school'sname was carried for thousands of years but the content has changed severaltimes starting not long from Confucius's death. There were several importantlater thinkers from the school, but after carefully analyzing their thoughts, Ifeel their relationship with Confucius is closer to the relationship betweenPlato and Aristotle. They were educated by Confucius and they look up to him,however, they are independent thinkers influenced by both Confucius and theircontemporary thoughts.
The core conceptof Confucianism is very government supportive; it was praised highly by most oflater dynasties. It was the main test point in the Imperial Examinations, whichplays an essential role in Chinese history and society even today. As aconsequence, the majority of the Chinese educated population claim to beConfucianists. However, their thoughts have little similarity to Confucius' asto other Chinese philosophy schools like Taoism, Legalism, and ChineseBuddhism. The way they write and connect themselves with Confucius reminds meof how Renaissance artists used Biblical stories to express their aesthetical andpolitical opinions. For these reasons, I will discuss the Neo-Confucianism andthe Legalist who was educated by Confucianism in the one chapter.
II. Confucius
KongZi[1]，knownto the western world as Confucius, was the first person in Chinese history toopen a private school for every one eager for knowledge.[2]"There is a difference in instruction but none in kind. "[3] (Confucius n.d.), he said.
From1045 B.C.E. to 770 B.C.E., the Zhou Dynasty was pretty stable. Zhou Gong[4],a very powerful prince in the early days of the dynasty, created a set ofrules, called Li Yue[5],thatcovered everything. Everybody followed them for over 200 years, during whichthe dynasty was under great order. The rules are mostly about manners, such ashow to greet with people from different classes of the society, how to dressappropriately as people from different classes of the society, etc. He almostconcluded every bit of the ceremonies and daily lives. However, after Zheng WuGong[6](King Wu of Zheng, ?-744 B.C.) changed the battle rules between kingdoms,kingdoms became creative, and nobody cared about the rules anymore. Forexample, there were rules about how a person should decorate his room and tombaccording to his class. However, everything discovered from the end of ZhouDynasty was over decorated for their titles.(Hucker 1975) Confucius edited a history book for his birth kingdom, Springs and Autumns[7],that recorded the period from 722 B.C. to 481 B.C.. It became an important Confucianismcanonical text book and people named that time period (770-476 B.C.)after thisbook. As he recorded in the book, in this period there were many patricides orregicide as people fought for power. He thought the reason people went crazy isthat "The ritual music collapse[8]" (Lu n.d.), by which he meant that people areno longer worried about the rules Zhou Gong left, so they went free.
Confucius,believed that the way to go back to the golden age of China is to rebuild thesystems of rules. Zhou Gong’s rules made at the beginning helped keep thedynasty’s reign when the royal house could make people to follow them. As amatter of fact the royal family had already lost their power completely whenthey were forced to move the royal capital in 770 B.C. China was ruled by themost powerful kingdom at the time and this king would hold conferences of kings.Many non-noble people had climbed their ways up. Maybe Confucius wanted to havea definition that anyone could understand that is a respect worthy person if itwas described. Confucius changed the definition of Jun Zi[9](sonof a king) from a noble person into an honorable person. He claimed that allhuman being should try their best to live like a Jun Zi, who has certainvirtues like Human-heartedness[10],Righteousness[11],Chung[12],Shu[13]andKnowing Ming[14].The measure system he created, The Rectification of Names[15]became extremely important in Chinese logics.
Confuciusdid not write anything, but only edited and taught. The books he edited becameclassic Chinese text books for thousands of years such as Springs and Autumns and Ten Wingsof Book of Changes[16].Most of his thoughts we know are from the collection of his students' notes,the Analects[17].He did not give reasoning for his opinions, but based on Analects, everything he did was for theRectification of Names. The concept of Names is very much akin to Plato'sconcept of the Forms. Everything should fit its name and function like its nameand no other. This includes people. He said, "Let the ruler be ruler, theminister minister, the father father, and the son son" (Confucius n.d.)[18].Thus, each person has his duty in the society that he must do, for no otherreason than who he is; as well as things he must never do, for no other reasonthan who he is; this is the virtue of Human-heartedness. Human-heartedness isthe reason of Righteousness. It states that human beings should love the humanspecies. We ought to obey our ruler and our father, so we shall be ruled and beguided rightly, and, thus should we always maintain our position in thesociety, in our own name. Knowing Ming is the same thing as knowing the fate withwhich we are born. But the way to know it is through knowing the name. Byknowing the name, a person will do things that fits his name and never pursueanything that is not. Chung and Shu are talking about "Do not do to otherswhat you do not wish yourself"[19] (Confucius n.d.). This is because of the lovefor humans that a Jun Zi should have that will make sure he maintains hisposition in the society, in his name. That is probably how Confucius reasoned tohis opinions.
Lookingover Confucius' ethic, it is similar to Kant's. Kant built his ethical systemon the universal law. Because of the universal law, every rational being shouldperform the same duty under the same condition and that is the only right thingto do for it is a good will. In order to be a good will, a person should alwaystreat himself and others equally. The concept of Names is like universal law, onlyhere, the emphasis is the societal order. The duty is basically the same asHuman-heartedness and Knowing Ming, also good will as Chung and Shu. Only inKant's language, ethics is based on human reason only, with nothing fromemotions, which sounds cold hearted. Confucius did not give a logical reasoningfor his ethics theory, but in his words, Confucius is emphasizing lovingothers, being virtuous. However, Kant believed in a real equality of everysingle person, when Confucius was teaching all of his three thousand (a verydebatable number) students from every class of society to remember their inbornposition and never try to overcome it. Confucius may have believed that onceall people hold the same value and view of society, it can function like anuniversal law so that China can finally get back to peace as it once had. Thus,he opened a school for anybody came to him.
Oncewe have sorted out Confucius' logical process, we can see there is a conflictthat even though he taught students from every class of the society, he wasteaching them to be who they were born to be. He sees the society as acollection of individuals so he emphasized on teaching his students how to bean honorable person, a Jun Zi. He thought people should love each other andperform as what they meant to be, with what they were born. This way, everyfunctioning person would be added into a balanced society. He was not an egalitarianbut was just playing with words to make people feel good about not trying to bemore than what they were born as. Ironically, he was born poor, though hisbiggest wish of life was to pursue political positions which means he did notsatisfy his life at all. He clearly did not want to stay where he was born buthe was teaching all of his students and all Chinese people born after him to bedutiful when he was the one who said "Do not do to others what you do notwish yourself" (Confucius n.d.)
III. Mencius
Mencius(372-289B.C.) is the one master of Confucianism that is always mentioned with Confuciuswhen one talks about the philosophy of Confucianism.[20]LikeConfucius, he did not write any articles, the book Mencius was the recordings of his teachings and some debateshappened between all kinds of people and him. The era of Mencius was a time ofContending. The Warring States era was the period in Chinese history whendozens of philosophical thoughts emerged , a broad spectrum of ideas rangingfrom the most concrete to the most abstract, from the most practical to themost theoretical (Hucker 1975). WhenMencius continued Confucius' work, he had to debate Mohists, Taoists and manyothers. This claim became the core of Confucianism to support this, "The principlesof the higher education consist in preserving man's clear character, in givingnew life to the people, and in dwelling (or resting) in perfection, or theultimate good."[21] (Tsu-su n.d.) All of the disciples, includingMencius, gave their own logical ways to prove that Confucius was the onephilosopher that ought to be the greatest teacher, for he was believed to beabsolutely right.
Menciusorganized Confucius' thoughts and started using logical terms. As a follower,he also believed in virtues like Human-heartedness, Righteousness, Chung, Shu andknowing Ming. For example, he said “I like fish, but I also like bear’s paw,but if I can’t have both at the same time, I will forego the fish and eat thebear’s paw. I love life, but I also love righteousness, and if I can’t haveboth at the same time, I will sacrifice life to have righteousness.” [22](Mencius n.d.) .He also said, “Everythingis destiny(ming). A men should accept obediently what is correct [in one'sdestiny]. Therefore, he who knows destiny does not stand beneath a precipitouswall. Death sustained in the course of carrying out the Way to the limit is dueto correct destiny. But death under handcuffs and fetters is not due to correctdestiny”[23](Menciusn.d.) He believed that all man were born with no bad, but only good elementsamong other elements. Guidance is needed, since the elements other than goodrepresents the animal side of human, and these will turn to desires that willultimately turn to evil (Fung 1952) . He said, “In years of prosperity, most of theyoung people are well behaved, and in bad years, most of the young people turnto violence. This is not due to a difference in their natural endowments fromHeaven, but because something has happened to lead their hearts astray”[24](Menciusn.d.) . In order to suppress those elements, we need to enlarge the human part,the good part, of ourselves. That is, we must enlarge the love for all of the humanrace, and we turn that love into guarding the rules of the society, Li Yue. (Fung 1952)
For the era hadchanged, by the time of Mencius, and it was very common for kings to be placedby violence; Mencius claimed that it is right to do so, if there is a goodreason, such as the king was not functioning like a king and thus he does notfit the name of a king, and so is not a king.(Mencius n.d.) Though it seems like he has successfully defended"Let the ruler be ruler, the minister minister, the father father, and theson son" (Confucius n.d.), actuallyhe created a huge hole in the system. He said "The people are the mostimportant element (in a start); the spirits of the land and grain aresecondary; and the sovereign is the least."[25] (Mencius n.d.) As a matter of fact, hundredsof people claimed that their king or even empire did not fit the name of aruler so they can go take their place and fit the name to themselves. They didnot have this excuse before Mencius, and they would be considered traitors byConfucianism. But after Mencius, they now have a reason and Confucius himselfsaid, "Statements only stand when the name were fit, and things only gowell when statements stand"[26]. (Confucius n.d.)
About the sametime, Aristotle also used logic to prove that there is an animal side of humans,but he thought that this side, in a certain amount, is good. Human beings needto control it, but still, not abandon it. Mencius was strict that humans shouldcontrol the animal side and use only their human side which is completelyrational to follow the rules, even if it tells you to kill your loved[27]ones or even yourself[28].
Compared toConfucius, Mencius is more practical. He did not insist the system to go backto how it exactly was. However, he also changed the core concept, which issocial position. For Confucius, people are the basic elements of the society,but they function in families, and a kingdom is controlled by one family,helped by other families who will continue their job at the same position as thegenerations flow. Every person was born with a name, a family name, and it ishis duty to fit that name. However, ever since Partition of Jin(376B.C.)[29],it was common for ministers to replace rulers and sons to replace fathers. Menciusdid not witness this happen, as a result, the state had similar history allturned out to be a little better than the previous one. Also the original kingof Chou also killed the last king of Shang to replace him. Thus, for Menciusand most people at his time, names come with the position, whoever is in thatposition would have the name. Which family this person came from was no longeras important.
IV. HsunTsu
After Mencius,Hsun Tzu used a completely opposite logic to prove the same argument "Theprinciples of the higher education consist in preserving man's clear character,in giving new life to the people, and in dwelling (or resting) in perfection,or the ultimate good." (Hsun-Tsu n.d.)He believes that people were born with only bad elements that are rude and irrational.To become a Jun zi, they need to live in a society and be trained to follow itsrules, Li Yue. Li Yue will purify the wild souls to civilization.
Unlike Mencius,Hsun Tsu thought emotions are not just the animal side, but important for humanlife, for if we do not express emotions, they will stay in and block our soulfrom being civilized. (Hsun-Tsu n.d.) Toexpress the emotion, but not in an animal like way, we have ceremonies, whichis a part of Li Yue. (Hsun-Tsu n.d.) Healso redefined names as a man-made changing concept. The current concept of aname is defined by the whole society. (Hsun-Tsun.d.) The logic has been refined but harder to apply, especially in amonarchial society. In some way, he used Li Yue as a kind of law, his origin ofLi is like Hobbes' origin of law:
From whathave the rules of proper conduct (li) originated? the answer is that man atbirth has desires. When these desires are not satisfied, he cannot remainwithout seeking their satisfaction. When this seeking for satisfaction iswithout measure or limit, there can only be contention. When there iscontention there will be disorder; when there is disorder, everything will bedestroyed. The early kings hated this disorder, and so they established therules of proper conduct (li) and standards of justice (Yi) so as to set limitsto this confusion, to satisfy men's desires, and give opportunity for thissatisfaction, in order that desires should not be stretched to the breakingpoint by things, nor things be used up by desires; that both these two shouldmutually support one another and so continue to exist. This is how the Lioriginated"[30] (Hsun-Tsu n.d.)
Also he valuedthe importance of law:
Thereforethe nature of a thousand or then thousand men are as those of one man. The beginningof Heaven and Earth were as the present day. The ways of hundred (early) kingsare as those of the later kings. The prince who examines the way of the laterkings, and then talks about what happened before these various kings, is likeone who discusses like a courtier. To extend abroad the threads of goodmanners(li) and standards of justice(yi), to make clear the distinctionsbetween right and wrong, to bring the important things of the whole countryinto one control, and to rue the masses within the seas, is like directing asingle person. Thus the scope of what one holds is narrow, but theaccomplishment is great. A five inch food-rule is the proper standard for theentire world. Hence the true ruler does not leave his hall, yet hisaccomplishments satisfy the sentiments of all people within the seas. This isbecause he has the proper way to do it."[31] (Hsun-Tsu n.d.)
That was why histwo most outstanding students did not pursue Confucianism, they became therepresentatives of legalism.
One otherdifference between Hsun-Tsu and earlier Confucius scholars was that he did notbelieve in destiny.
Heaven has aconstant regularity of activity. It did not exist for the sake of Yao nor ceaseto exist for the sake of Chieh. Respond to it with misgovernment, and calamitywill result....hence to understand the distinction between Heaven and man: thisis to be a great man. To make complete without acting (wu wei), and to obtainwithout seeking: this is what is meant by the activities of Heaven. Being likethis, although it is deep, man will not give deep thought to it; althoughmysterious, he will not scrutinize it: this is what is meant by refraining fromcontesting in one's activities with Heaven. Heaven has its seasons, Earth hasits material resources, man has his government. This is what is meant (when itis said that man) is able to form a trinity (with Heaven and Earth). To give upthat wherewith one can form such a trinity, and to desire that with which oneforms the trinity, is to be led into error.[32] (Hsun-Tsu n.d.)
Even as a part of the universe,human life and the universe is not so connected. Man can control their owndestiny. At this point, Confucianism does not have any belief that people bornto their position should stay with that until death.
V. HanFei Zi and Neo Confucianism
For me, this isthe end of Confucianism, however, for better control of the empire, allfollowing dynasties wanted the whole nation to study Confucianism so they wouldfollow the golden rule of "Let the ruler be ruler, the minister minister,the father father, and the son son"(Confucius n.d.) and never fight. Later we had the two schools of Neo-Confucianismdebating "In terms of Western philosophy, it was one as the whether thelaws of nature are or are not legislated by the mind or Mind." (Fung 1952) Confucius was playing with wordsto protect the upper class' profit; Mencius and Hsun Tsu were trying to findlogic for his thesis, but Neo-Confucianism was playing with Confucius' andMencius' word to prove their own opinion using their own logic. So I ratherthink of them as two completely new schools that have nothing to do withConfucianism, which was fighting for the system of names.
As Hsun-Tsu'sstudents, Han Fei Zi and Li Si did not became a Confucianism scholar. They turnedout to be Legalists. Legalism was not a school, it was certain thinkers that werelater being grouped up since they all valued the importance of law. Han Fei Ziis even considered the peak of the Legalists. In his theory, like his teacher, hebelieved that human nature needs to be ruled so the society can be justifiedinstead of being influenced by personal emotions. He also adopted concepts andtheories from other schools like Taoism. He saw the country as a whole made ofall people of it instead of personal belonging of the royalty like Confucius. (Hughes 1971) From Confucius to Han Fei Zi,the philosophy became almost completely opposite. And the original Confucianismwas not picked up until Tung Chung-shu of Han Dynasty, which I believe was apurely political action so that China is ruled by one royal family again. Tocontinue this controlling of power, Confucius' ethics theory is very efficient.
VI. Conclusion
Confucius was awise man, he was right about many of things and he was a great teacher. Weshould always remember how hard he tried to protect Chinese traditional cultureand always remember his words about how to be nice to people and how to be agood scholar. But was he a good philosopher? I could not agree, because he didnot provide any convincing logical reasoning to support his arguments. Hisargument even was not clear before Tsu Su. As well as I could not agree withhim as a good politician, the old system was not working anymore for a reasonand it is not realistic that bringing it back could solve all of the problems.Hsun Tsu's disciple, one of the best legalists, Han Fei Tzu once said, "Therefore affairs go according to their time, and preparations are made inaccordance with affairs." (Han-Fei-Tsun.d.)[33]
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